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On this page, the Prison Policy Initiative has curated all of the research about women in the criminal justice system that we know of. For research on other criminal justice topics, see our Research Library homepage.
While the overall incarceration rate in the United States has leveled off in recent years, women's incarceration rates continue to grow faster than men's. But the experiences of women — as well as trans and nonbinary people — are too often lost, because men comprise the vast majority of the incarcerated population.
You can also see a selection of our best original research on this topic on our Women and Gender page.
Two years after the end of Roe v. Wade, most women on probation & parole have to ask permission to travel for abortion care Prison Policy Initiative, June, 2024“In all, 41 states have some kind of abortion ban in place, whether "total bans" or bans based on gestational duration. In every one of these states, standard conditions of probation and/or parole require permission to travel out of state or county.”
Women and Massachusetts County Jails: An Introduction Women & Incarceration Project, Center for Women's Health & Human Rights at Suffolk University, March, 2024“The large majority of women in Massachusetts county jails are aged 39 or younger. In contrast, ages are more evenly distributed among women at MCI-Framingham (a Massachusetts state prison).”
Forgotten Fundamentals: A Review of State Legislation on Nutrition for Incarcerated Pregnant and Postpartum People Paywall :(Julia Vitagliano, Talia Shalev, Jennifer B Saunders, Ellen Mason, Jamie Stang, Rebecca Shlafer, & Bethany Kotlar, March, 2024“Less than a third of states had nutrition-related mandates [for incarcerated pregnant people] and no states had statutes that included all key nutrition recommendations.”
Mental health, chronic and infectious conditions among pregnant persons in US state prisons and local jails 2016-2017Caitlin A Hendricks, Karissa M Rajagopal, Carolyn B Sufrin, Camille Kramer, & Monik C Jimenez, March, 2024“Of the 445 newly admitted pregnant people in prisons and 243 in jails, 34% in prison and 23.5% in jail had a substance use disorder, and 27.4% of those in prison and 17.7% in jail had a psychiatric diagnosis. 20% in prison and 6.6% in jail had hepatitis C”
Since you asked: How many women and men are released from each state's prisons and jails every year? Prison Policy Initiative, February, 2024“Even though prison and jail populations have unfortunately largely rebounded since [COVID-related population reductions], there were still 29% fewer releases from prisons and jails in 2022 compared to 2019.”
Structural Racism, Mass Incarceration, and Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Severe Maternal MorbidityElleni M. Hailu, Corinne A. Riddell, Patrick T. Bradshaw, Jennifer Ahern, Suzan L. Carmichael, & Mahasin S. Mujahid, January, 2024“In this study of 10 million live hospital births across California from 1997-2018, Black and Hispanic/Latinx birthing people residing in counties with high Black-White jail incarceration inequity had increased odds of severe maternal morbidity.”
Incarceration Status Among Individuals Obtaining Abortion in the United States, 2020Marielle Kirstein, Liza Fuentes, and Carolyn Sufrin, November, 2023“Sixty-seven clinics across 25 states and the District of Columbia provided more than 300 abortions to incarcerated patients in 2020. Eleven of these clinics are in states that now have total or near-total abortion bans.”
Assessing Gender Differences in Prison Rule Enforcement: A Focus on Defiance Paywall :(Melinda Tasca, Erin A. Orrick, & H. Daniel Butler, October, 2023“Incarcerated women had an increased likelihood of receiving a defiance infraction by 39.7% compared to men, all else constant. Second, results revealed that females experienced a rate of defiance infractions that is 1.409 times greater than males.”
Lifetime and Jail-Specific Suicidal Ideation: Prevalence and Correlates in a Sample of People in Jail in the United States Bryce E. Stoliker, Haile Wangler, Frances P. Abderhalden, and Lisa M. Jewell, April, 2023“Approximately 45% of the 196 people sampled reported a lifetime history of suicidal ideation (SI) & 30% reported SI during the current incarceration... Those who identified as non-men reported a higher prevalence than men on lifetime and jail-specific SI”
Sentencing Reform for Criminalized Survivors: Learning from New York's Domestic Violence Survivors Justice Act Sentencing Project and Survivors Justice Project, April, 2023“Since its passage, the Domestic Violence Survivors Justice Act (DVSJA) has freed people who otherwise would have spent considerably more time behind bars, but compromises...have limited its impact.”
From Victim to Victor: An Inquiry into Death by Incarceration, Gender, and Resistance in Pennsylvania Abolitionist Law Center, April, 2023“One third of [survey respondents'] cases involved the death of a romantic partner, and in 85% of those cases, the participants had experienced partner abuse.”
Women's Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2023 Prison Policy Initiative, March, 2023“The disaggregated numbers presented here are an important step to ensuring that women are not left behind in the effort to end mass incarceration.”
From Crisis to Care: Ending the Health Harm of Women's Prisons Human Impact Partners, February, 2023“The state of California invests $405 million a year in its women's prisons...[it] has the opportunity to invest that money in health-promoting support systems that people can access in their own communities.”
Trends in Women's Incarceration Rates in US Prisons and Jails: A Tale of Inequalities Karen Heimer, Sarah E. Malone, & Stacy De Coster, January, 2023“Women's [incarceration] rates increased by 6.6 times or 560% [between 1978-2007]; by comparison, men's state imprisonment rates increased by 3.4 times or 240% during this same period.”
The Well-Being Impacts Associated with College in Prison: A Comparison of Incarcerated and Non-Incarcerated Students Who Identify as Women Paywall :(Sarah Y. Moore and Tanya Erzen, November, 2022“[The students'] measures of well-being, coping, and academic engagement were significantly better than the matched non-incarcerated sample for most measures.”
Women's Pathways Into and Out of Jail in Buncombe CountyVera Institute of Justice, November, 2022“Very high bond amounts present an insurmountable challenge, leaving women with no other option but pretrial incarceration. Many women with bond amounts less than $10,000 found this sum impossible to pay, even when required to post only 10 percent...”
Global governance and climate stress of incarcerated women: the case of the U.S Paywall :(Daniela Jauk-Ajamie, November, 2022“This paper takes the United States as a case study on the gendered implications of hyper-incarceration in the age of climate emergency.”
When Men Murder Women: An Analysis of 2020 Homicide Data Violence Policy Center, September, 2022“This is the first analysis of the 2020 data on female homicide victims to offer breakdowns of cases in the 10 states with the highest female victim/male offender homicide rates.”
A Different Way Forward: Stories from Incarcerated Women in Massachusetts and Recommendations Sarah Nawab, Prisoners' Legal Services of Massachusetts, July, 2022“Nineteen (of 22) women interviewed and six (of 10) women surveyed reported that they had either experienced or witnessed sexual misconduct or harassment by correctional or other staff.”
Justice for Girls Blueprint: The Way Forward for Florida Delores Barr Weaver Policy Center, July, 2022“Statewide, Black girls make up only 21% of girls ages 10-17, but they represent 45% of the girls who were arrested, 52% of girls on probation caseloads, 47% of girls incarcerated, and 52% of the girls transferred into the adult criminal justice system.”
Correctional Medical Care for Female Prisoners: Legal Issues Surrounding Inadequate Treatment of Chronic and/or Preexisting Health Conditions Paywall :(Chelsi Lamberton and Michael S. Vaughn, June, 2022“Through the lens of federal court litigation...this article discusses women who brought legal challenges, questioning the adequacy of correctional medical care rendered to their chronic and preexisting health conditions.”
Motherhood and Pregnancy Behind Bars: Texas Must Rethink How It's Treating Mothers and Families Texas Center for Justice and Equity, May, 2022“Disregarding women's requests for help had occurred so often in Texas corrections facilities that the Legislature passed [a bill requiring] corrections officers to promptly respond when a woman was experiencing labor and take her to a medical facility.”
System Involvement Among LBQ Girls and WomenUCLA Williams Institute, April, 2022“Among those who are incarcerated, the percentage of girls and women who are LBQ is 3 and 10 times higher, respectively, than the proportion of queer girls and women in the general population.”
Stalking Victimization, 2019Bureau of Justice Statistics, February, 2022“About 1.3% (3.4 million) of all persons age 16 or older were victims of stalking in 2019. Less than a third (29%) of all stalking victims reported the victimization to police in 2019.”
Availability of Medications for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder Among Pregnant and Postpartum Individuals in US Jails Carolyn Sufrin, Camille T. Kramer, Mishka Terplan et al, January, 2022“A substantial proportion of US jails did not provide access to MOUD to pregnant people with OUD. Although most jails reported continuing to provide MOUD to individuals who were receiving medication before incarceration, few jails initiated MOUD..”
In the Extreme: Women Serving Life Without Parole and Death Sentences in the United States Sentencing Project, September, 2021“One third of the women serving life without parole are Black. Among women in our sample of over 1,000 women across 16 states we find that Black women were on average 4.5 years younger at sentencing compared to white women.”
Women, Incarceration, and Violent Crime: A Briefing in Response to Plans for Building a New Women's Prison in Massachusetts Women and Incarceration Project, September, 2021“The population of women convicted of crimes classified as violent by the Massachusetts DOC should not be used as justification for spending millions of taxpayer dollars on constructing a new women's prison.”
Unsupportive environments and limited policies: Pregnancy, postpartum, and birth during incarceration Prison Policy Initiative, August, 2021“Jails, prisons, and youth facilities have yet to adequately recognize pregnancy and postpartum needs either in policy or in practice.”
The Relevance of Women's Economic Marginalization to RecidivismPaywall :(Merry Morash and Deborah A. Kashy, August, 2021“This study examines whether changes over time in women's criminogenic needs, particularly their financial needs, predict recidivism...Women whose financial needs decreased were less likely to be rearrested and convicted relative to other women.”
Unjust Isolation: The Diminishing Returns of Solitary Confinement of Pregnant Women and California's Need to Regulate It Richard Lee, July, 2021“When all the risk factors of pregnant prisoners intersect, it puts them in an especially ill-equipped position to protect themselves mentally against the potential harms of solitary confinement.”
The carceral production of transgender poverty: How racialized gender policing deprives transgender women of housing and safety Dilara Yarbrough, May, 2021“Laws crafted with race-neutral language target survival and coping strategies disproportionately used by people of color and trans people in public space.”
The Pandemic Gender Gap Behind Bars: Meeting the Needs of Women in Custody During COVID-19 and Planning for the Future Alycia Welch and Michele Deitch, May, 2021“Even before the pandemic, women were overlooked in correctional facilities that were not designed for them and that are not administered with them in mind.”
Breastfeeding in Incarcerated Settings in the United States: A National Survey of Frequency and Policies Paywall :(Ifeyinwa V. Asiodu, Lauren Beal, and Carolyn Sufrin, April, 2021“Our data show inconsistent implementation of policies and practices supportive of breastfeeding in prisons and jails.”
Beyond Recidivism and DesistancePaywall :(Susan Starr Sered, Maureen Norton-Hawk, April, 2021“Conventional measures of recidivism and desistance tend to...(3) overly focus on individual choices and narratives in contexts where freedoms are constrained by structural and institutional policies and practices.”
Doing Double Time: Women, Incarceration and Employment Discrimination Diane van den Broek, Prudence Black, Nicki (identity protected), April, 2021“Her [Nicki's] story presents a portrait of a woman at the frontline of post-incarceration and employment, where vulnerability and insecurity prevail.”
Redefining the Narrative: On Behalf of the Statewide Women's Justice Task Force of Illinois Deanna Benos, Alyssa Benedict, The Women's Justice Institute, April, 2021“Prisons have been deployed as a default response to women's attempts to survive untenable social conditions, yet there is no evidence that any amount of time in prison is helpful or even improves public safety.”
Age Gradient in Women's Crime: The Role of Welfare Reform Paywall :(Hope Corman, Dhaval M. Dave, and Nancy E. Reichman, February, 2021“Using Federal Bureau of Investigation data, we investigated the age-patterning of effects of welfare reform on women's arrests for property crime, the type of crime that welfare reform has been shown to affect.”
Federal Prisoner Statistics Collected Under The First Step Act, 2020Bureau of Justice Statistics, February, 2021“The portion of federal prisoners who were the parent, step-parent, or guardian of a minor child (defined as a dependent age 20 or younger by the BOP) grew from 45% to 49% from year-end 2018 to year-end 2019.”
Pregnant Women in DOJ Custody: U.S. Marshals Service and Bureau of Prisons Should Better Align Policies with National Guidelines United States Government Accountability Office, January, 2021“By taking steps to more closely align agency standards and policies with national guidance as feasible, USMS and BOP would be better positioned to help ensure the health of pregnant women in their custody.”
Since you asked: What role does drug enforcement play in the rising incarceration of women? Prison Policy Initiative, November, 2020“Over the past 35 years, total arrests have risen 25% for women, while decreasing 33% for men. The increase among women is largely driven by drugs.”
Lives on the Line: Women with Incarcerated Loved Ones and the Impact of COVID-19 Behind Bars Essie Justice Group and Color of Change, September, 2020(Only 7% of respondents reported that their incarcerated loved one had adequate access to basic necessities to prevent the spread of COVID-19.)
Improving Health Equity for Women Involved in the Criminal Legal SystemGolembeski et al., May, 2020“We delineate reproductive health and motherhood, aging in prison, and reentry as critical areas exemplifying women's complex health-related needs, which may be best addressed via gender-responsive and trauma-informed care.”
Pregnancy Prevalence and Outcomes in U.S. JailsSufrin et al., May, 2020“About 3% of admissions of females to U.S. jails are of pregnant people; extrapolating study results to national female jail admission rates suggests nearly 55,000 pregnancy admissions in 1 year.”
Does distance decrease healthcare options for pregnant, incarcerated people? Mapping the distance between abortion providers and prisons Paywall :(Julia Gips, Kevin J. Psoter, and Carolyn Sufrin, April, 2020“We georeferenced 643 abortion clinics, 75 state prisons and 20 federal prisons. The farthest minimum distance between a state prison and abortion clinic was 383 miles; the shortest was 2.2 miles.”
The Future of Dignity: Insights from the Texas Women's Dignity Retreat Texas Criminal Justice Coalition, March, 2020“Female incarceration in Texas has increased at more than twice the rate of male incarceration over the past 40 years.”
Opioid use disorder incidence and treatment among incarcerated pregnant women in the United States: results from a national surveillance study Paywall :(Sufrin et al., February, 2020“Twenty-six per cent of pregnant women admitted to prisons and 14% to jails had OUD. One-third were managed through withdrawal. The majority who were prescribed MOUD were on methadone (78%, prisons; 81%, jails), not buprenorphine.”
Women in Prison: Seeking Justice Behind Bars U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, February, 2020“Many incarcerated women continue to experience physical and psychological safety harms while incarcerated and insufficient satisfaction of their constitutional rights.”
Pregnancy, Systematic Disregard and Degradation, and Carceral InstitutionsLauren Kuhlik and Carolyn Sufrin, 2020“We describe violations of constitutional and clinical standards of reproductive care behind bars... these reproductive coercions are grounded in historical legacies of slavery and the ongoing reproductive control of black and other marginalized bodies.”
Prisons neglect pregnant women in their healthcare policiesPrison Policy Initiative, December, 2019“Our 50-state survey finds that in spite of national standards, most states lack important policies on prenatal care and nutrition for pregnant women.”
Trends in Correctional Control by Race and SexThe Council on Criminal Justice, December, 2019(For Black individuals, increases in length of stay, admissions per arrest, and arrests per offender offset the 3% decline in offending rates for rape, robbery, and aggravated assault.)
Mass incarceration and public health: the association between black jail incarceration and adverse birth outcomes among black women in Louisiana Lauren Dyer, Rachel Hardeman, Dovile Vilda, Katherine Theall & Maeve Wallace, December, 2019(This analysis of births among black women in Louisiana demonstrated that higher parish-level incarceration prevalence for black individuals were associated with significantly greater risks for preterm birth among parish residents.)
Association of Punitive and Reporting State Policies Related to Substance Use in Pregnancy With Rates of Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome Laura J. Faherty, Ashley M. Kranz, Joshua Russell-Fritch, et al., November, 2019(Punitive policies related to substance use in pregnancy were not associated with a reduction in (neonatal abstinence syndrome) NAS rates, and in fact, these policies may have been associated with an increase in rates of NAS.)
Women's Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2019 Prison Policy Initiative, October, 2019“More incarcerated women are held in local jails than in state prisons, in stark contrast to incarcerated men, meaning that reforms that only impact people in prison will not benefit them.”
Who's helping the 1.9 million women released from prisons and jails each year?Prison Policy Initiative, July, 2019“In 2016, about 81,000 women were released from state prisons nationwide, and women and girls accounted for at least 1.8 million releases from local jails in 2013 (the last year all jails were surveyed).”
Still Worse Than Second-Class: Solitary Confinement of Women in the United States ACLU, June, 2019“Nearly 70 percent of women in prison or jail have a history of mental health conditions--a much higher rate than for men in prison or jail. Solitary confinement has been shown to exacerbate underlying mental health conditions.”
The Gendered Burdens of Conviction and Collateral Consequences on EmploymentJoni Hersch and Erin E. Meyers, June, 2019“Licensing restrictions, stigma, and perceived risk in hiring decisions in female-dominated occupations and industries, along with barriers to childcare subsidies are all likely to exert a heightened burden on women.”
Women in Prison Camp: Judicial Process and Effect on Families Capella, June, 2019“Most women in this study (86%) consider themselves punished predominantly by separation from their families and children. Collateral damage to the families and young children is considered legally permissible and thus remains ignored.”
Policing Women: Race and gender disparities in police stops, searches, and use of force Prison Policy Initiative, May, 2019“Women make up an increasing share of arrests and report much more use of force than they did twenty years ago.”
Pregnancy Outcomes in US Prisons, 2016-2017Sufrin et al., March, 2019“Overall, 1396 pregnant women were admitted to prisons; 3.8% of newly admitted women and 0.6% of all women were pregnant in December 2016.”
Criminal Justice Contact and Health Service Utilization among Women across Health Care Settings: Analyzing the Role of Arrest Paywall :(Kathryn M. Nowotny, Anastasiia Kuptsevych-Timmer, Carrie Oser, March, 2019“Specifically, women recently arrested are hospitalized and seek care at the emergency department at higher rates than non-recently arrested women and this may be associated with their vulnerable mental and behavioral health status.”
Women's Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2018 Prison Policy Initiative, November, 2018“Women's incarceration has grown at twice the pace of men's incarceration in recent decades, and has disproportionately been located in local jails.”
A New Path to Justice: Getting Women Off Rikers Island Vera Institute of Justice, November, 2018“The advisory group developed several recommendations for how New York City can embrace a different approach at three critical junctures in the criminal justice system: (1) at arrest; (2) at arraignment; and (3) when women are held at RMSC.”
In Prison, Discipline Comes Down Hardest On WomenJoseph Shapiro, Jessica Pupovac, and Kari Lydersen, October, 2018“In 13 of the 15 states we analyzed, women get in trouble at higher rates than men. The discrepancies are highest for more minor infractions of prison rules.”
Judged for More Than Her Crime: A Global Overview of Women Facing the Death Penalty The Cornell Center on the Death Penalty Worldwide, September, 2018“We estimate that at least 500 women are currently on death rows around the world”
Nowhere to Go: Homelessness among formerly incarcerated people Prison Policy Initiative, August, 2018“Formerly incarcerated people are almost 10 times more likely to be homeless than the general public.”
Out of Prison & Out of Work: Unemployment among formerly incarcerated people Prison Policy Initiative, July, 2018(This report calculates that 27% of formerly incarcerated people are looking for a job, but can't find one.)
Girls Matter: Centering Gender in Status Offense Reform Efforts Vera Institute of Justice, July, 2018“This report helps stakeholders analyze how policies and practices may be negatively or differently impacting girls and address disparities that are missed when systems assessment and reform do not include a targeted gender lens.”
States of Women's Incarceration: The Global Context 2018 Prison Policy Initiative, June, 2018“This report updates how U.S. women fare in the world's carceral landscape, comparing incarceration rates for women of each U.S. state with the equivalent rates for countries around the world.”
Because She's Powerful: The Political Isolation and Resistance of Women with Incarcerated Loved Ones. ESSIE Justice Group, May, 2018(Mass incarceration is a direct cause of significant to extreme psychological distress and trauma, and a serious obstacle to the financial health and economic agency of women with incarcerated loved ones.)
An Unsupported Population The Treatment of Women in Texas' Criminal Justice System Texas Criminal Justice Coalition, April, 2018(This report explores the unique issues facing women impacted by the criminal justice system, including challenges within Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ) facilities.)
The Detention and Forced Medical Treatment of Pregnant Women: A Human Rights Perspective American Constitution Society, March, 2018(This report argues that laws authorizing the detention and forced medical treatment of pregnant women suspected of drug or alcohol abuse violate human rights standards and are a mistaken legal response to address individual and public health issues.)
Sexual Victimization and Mental Illness Prevalence Rates Among Incarcerated Women: A Literature Review Marie E. Karlsson and Melissa J. Zielinski, January, 2018(The results from this review builds on the literature suggesting that sexual victimization is a pathway to prison for women, likely through the development of mental illness, substance abuse, and repeated exposure to interpersonal trauma.)
The Gender Divide: Tracking women's state prison growth Prison Policy Initiative, January, 2018“This report sheds more light on women in the era of mass incarceration by tracking prison population trends since 1978 for all 50 states.”
BJS update: Women's state prison populations rose while men's fell, again. Prison Policy Initiative, January, 2018“State prisons cut men's populations in 2016, but incarcerated more women, widening the 'gender divide.'”
Women's Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2017 Prison Policy Initiative, October, 2017“This report provides a first-of-its-kind detailed view of the 219,000 women incarcerated in the United States, and how they fit into the even larger picture of correctional control.”
Reflections on New National Data on LGBQ/GNCT Youth in the Justice SystemHarvard Kennedy School, September, 2017(12-13% of boys in the justice system identify as gay, bisexual, questioning, gender nonconforming, or transgender (GBQ/GNCT), while 40% of girls identify as LBQ/GNCT. And, of these LGBQ/GNCT youth, 85% nationally are of color.)
Criminalization of Self-Induced Abortion in the United States: Report to the U.N. Working Group on Discrimination Against Women Farah Diaz-Tello and Cynthia Soohoo, June, 2017“Whether people end their own pregnancies out of preference or necessity, historical and present trends indicate that criminalization is not a deterrent to self-induction.”
Girlhood Interrupted: The Erasure of Black Girls' Childhood Georgetown Law Center on Poverty and Inequality, June, 2017(Adults view black girls as less innocent and more adult-like than their white peers, especially in the age range of 5-14)
The Status of Black Women in the United StatesInstitute for Women's Policy Research, June, 2017“The intention behind this report is to make visible the experiences of Black women in our economy and our democracy.”
Criminalizing Pregnancy: Policing Pregnant Women Who Use Drugs in the USA Amnesty International, May, 2017“Often known as "fetal assault", "chemical endangerment" or "personhood" laws, these measures have been used to arrest and prosecute women who experience pregnancy complications and conditions such as drug dependence.”
Gender and Trauma, Somatic Interventions for Girls in Juvenile Justice: Implications for Policy and Practice Rebecca Epstein and Thalia González, Georgetown Law Center on Poverty and Inequality, April, 2017“Trauma-informed, gender-responsive, and culturally competent somatic interventions can serve as a critical component of physical and mental health approaches for system-involved girls.”
Cumulative Sexual Victimization and Mental Health Outcomes Among Incarcerated WomenJennifer Hartsfield, Susan F. Sharp, and Sonya Conner, March, 2017“Our findings confirm prior research about the prevalence of childhood sexual abuse among women prisoners with more than half of the respondents reported experiencing childhood sexual abuse, similar to past research.”
An Examination of Care Practices of Pregnant Women Incarcerated in Jail Facilities in the United StatesC. M. Kelsey, Nickole Medel, Carson Mullins, Danielle Dallaire, Catherine Forestell, February, 2017(In this first study to examine practices in regional jails nationwide, we found evidence that standards of care guidelines to improve health and well-being of pregnant incarcerated women are not being followed in many facilities.)
"She Doesn't Deserve to be Treated Like This": Prisons as Sites of Reproductive Injustice Rachel Roth, The Feminist Press, 2017 (updated), January, 2017“This essay explores prisons as sites of reproductive injustice by focusing on barriers to abortion and safe childbirth.”
Overlooked: Women and Jails in an Era of Reform Vera Institute of Justice, August, 2016“At this critical moment in jail and local justice system reform, Vera has taken stock of the existing research on women in jail to begin to reframe the conversation to include them.”
The Gavel Gap: Who Sits in Judgment on State Courts? American Constitution Society for Law and Policy, June, 2016“We find that courts are not representative of the people whom they serve -- that is, a gap exists between the bench and the citizens.”
Breaking Promises: Violations of the Massachusetts Pregnancy Standards & Anti-Shackling Law The Prison Birth Project and Prisoners' Legal Services of Massachusetts, May, 2016“Far too often Massachusetts prisons and jails violate the law in both policy and practice, undermining the public will and subjecting pregnant women to illegal, unsafe, and degrading treatment.”
Pretrial Incarcerated Women: An Analysis of Women in Bristol County Jail, Massachusetts Wellesley Centers for Women, March, 2016“This brief policy report examines these women’s demographic and criminal justice characteristics and, focusing particularly on their race and ethnicity, examines the relationships between them.”
"Do You See How Much I'm Suffering Here?" Abuse against Transgender Women in US Immigration Detention Human Rights Watch, March, 2016“[T]his report details the abuses that transgender women suffer in immigration detention and the US government’s inadequate efforts to address them.”
Health Disparities in Drug- and Alcohol-Use Disorders: A 12-Year Longitudinal Study of Youths After Detention American Journal of Public Health, December, 2015“Drug abuse appears to have greater consequences for racial/ethnic minorities, especially African Americans, than for non-Hispanic Whites.”
States of Women's Incarceration: The Global Context Prison Policy Initiative, November, 2015“When compared to jurisdictions across the globe, even the U.S. states with the lowest levels of incarceration are far out of line.”
Hate Crime Statistics, 2014Federal Bureau of Investigation, November, 2015“Of the 5,462 single-bias incidents reported in 2014, 47 percent were racially motivated. Other motivators included sexual orientation, religion, ethnicity, gender identity, disability, and gender.”
The Conditioning Effects of Race and Gender on the Juvenile Court Outcomes of Delinquent and "Neglected" Types of Offenders Justice Quarterly, November, 2015(The main inverse effect for status, probation violation, contempt, misdemeanor property, felony property, felony person, drugs, and other offenses with detention, was conditioned by whether the youth was Black.)
Gender Injustice: System-Level Juvenile Justice Reforms for Girls The National Crittenton Foundation; National Women's Law Center, September, 2015“Despite decades of attention, the proportion of girls in the juvenile justice system has increased and their challenges have remained remarkably consistent, resulting in deeply rooted systemic gender injustice.”
World Female Imprisonment List: Third Edition World Prison Brief; Institute for Criminal Policy Research, September, 2015“This report shows that 700,000 women and girls are held in penal institutions throughout the world, either as pre-trial detainees/remand prisoners or having been convicted and sentenced.”
Breaking the Silence: Civil and Human Rights Violations Resulting from Medical Neglect and Abuse of Women of Color in Los Angeles County Jails Dignity and Power Now, August, 2015“This Report by Dignity and Power Now ("DPN") documents how jail and prison officials violated the rights of seven women of color, and highlights the mental health consequences of the medical neglect and abuse these women suffered.”
Say Her Name: Resisting Police Brutality Against Black Women African American Policy Forum, July, 2015(The failure to highlight and demand accountability for the countless Black women killed by police over the past two decades leaves Black women unnamed and thus underprotected in the face of their continued vulnerability to racialized police violence.)
Invisible Women: Mass Incarceration's Forgotten Casualties Michele Goodwin, June, 2015“To place this in context, the U.S. jails more women than Russia, China, Thailand, and India combined. Nearly a third of the world's women inmates are incarcerated in the United States.”
Moving Beyond Incarceration for Women in Massachusetts: The Necessity of Bail/Pretrial Reform Wellesley Centers for Women, March, 2015“Between 2012 and 2014, the number of pretrial women held in the Awaiting Trial Unit (ATU) at MCI-F increased, and overcrowding worsened.”
Reproductive Injustice: The State of Reproductive Health Care for Women in New York State Prisons Correctional Association of New York, February, 2015“Overall, however, we found that reproductive health care for women in New York State prisons is woefully substandard, with women routinely facing poor-quality care and assaults on their basic human dignity and reproductive rights.”
"If They Hand You a Paper, You Sign It": A Call to End the Sterilization of Women in Prison Rachel Roth and Sara L. Ainsworth, Hastings Women's Law Journal, January, 2015“[A] number of states allow the sterilization of incarcerated women—flouting important policy norms—and that medical providers and their professional organizations play key roles in sanctioning and carrying out these procedures.”
The Sexual Abuse to Prison Pipeline: The Girls' Story Human Rights Project for Girls; Georgetown Law Center on Poverty and Inequality; Ms. Foundation for Women, 2015“And in a perverse twist of justice, many girls who experience sexual abuse are routed into the juvenile justice system because of their victimization.”
Reproductive Healthcare Experiences of Incarcerated Women: A Qualitative Study Paywall :(Sarah O'Connor and Rebecca Perkins, 2015“Most women described fragmentation of care with inability to consistently access reproductive and prenatal healthcare services. Frequent transitions between institutions exacerbated problems with access.”
Women Injustice: Gender and the Pathway to Jail in New York City John Jay College of Criminal Justice, Prisoner Reentry Institute, 2015“Only 12% to 15% of the average daily population of women at Rikers have been sentenced to jail, as most are detained on pending cases.”
Breaking the Cycle: Interrupting Generational Incarceration in Maine Place Matters Maine, 2015“Black or African American and Native American or Indigenous children are disproportionately affected by parental incarceration in Maine.”
Black Girls Matter: Pushed Out, Overpoliced, and Underprotected African American Policy Forum, December, 2014“Increased levels of law enforcement and security personnel within schools sometimes make girls feel less safe and less likely to attend school.”
Bias Behind Bars: Decreasing Disproportionate Rates of Incarcerated Women in California and Nationwide for Low-Level Offenses The Women's Foundation of California, October, 2014“Nationally-but especially in California-women have been incarcerated for nonviolent, poverty-related offenses at disproportionate rates compared to men.”
Reentering Women: The Impact of Social Ties on Long-Term Recidivism Kelle Barrick, Pamela K. Lattimore, and Christy A. Visher, July, 2014“Results from this study suggest that in-prison family contact and post-release family support are protective whereas in-prison non-family contact is a risk factor.”
Worse Than Second-Class: Solitary Confinement of Women in the United States American Civil Liberties Union, April, 2014“...solitary is often used on the most vulnerable: pregnant women, individuals with mental illness, transgender women, and - in a particularly disturbing trend - victims of sexual assault by prison guards.”
No More Shackles A report on... California's counties under the new law that limits the use of restraints on pregnant prisoners Legal Services for Prisoners with Children, February, 2014“...specification that a prisoner known to be pregnant or in recovery after delivery shall never be restrained by the use of leg irons, waist chains, or handcuffs from behind the body.”
Gender Differences in the Determinants of Prison Rule ViolationsKatarzyna Celinska & Hung-En Sung, 2014“Women averaged 1.96 infractions per person who violated a rule as compared with the rate of 2.27 infractions per person who violated a rule found among men. Women in prison were not only less likely to break rules but also did so less frequently than men.”
When Men Murder Women: An Analysis of 2011 Homicide Data Violence Policy Center, September, 2013“For homicides in which the victim to offender relationship could be identified, 94 percent of female victims (1,509 out of 1,601) were murdered by a male they knew.”
Female Victims of Sexual Violence, 1994-2010Bureau of Justice Statistics, March, 2013“From 1995 to 2010, the estimated annual rate of female rape or sexual assault victimizations declined 58%, from 5.0 victimizations per 1,000 females age 12 or older to 2.1 per 1,000.”
The Changing Racial Dynamics of Women's IncarcerationSentencing Project, February, 2013“In 2000 black women were incarcerated at six times the rate of white women. By 2009 that ratio had declined by 53%, to 2.8:1. This shift was a result of both declining incarceration of African American women and rising incarceration of white women.”
Arrests of and Forced Interventions on Pregnant Women in the United States, 1973-2005: Implications for Women's Legal Status and Public Health National Advocates for Pregnant Women, January, 2013“Findings confirm that if passed, personhood measures not only would provide a basis for recriminalizing abortion, they would also provide grounds for depriving all pregnant women of their liberty.”
Roe v Wade and the new Jane Crow: Reproductive rights in the age of mass incarceration Lynn Paltrow, January, 2013“Efforts to establish separate legal”
Onsite Assessment RE Cross-Gender Supervision in Correctional Facilities [Tutwiler Prison for Women] U.S. Department of Justice, November, 2012“The facility culture is not psychologically safe for women offenders. The women and staff report that Tutwiler is a repressive and intimidating environment. Inmates reported being in fear of retaliation from staff if they reject staff's sexual advances.”
Girls' Experiences in the Texas Juvenile Justice System 2012 Survey Findings Texas Criminal Justice Coalition, October, 2012“46% of the surveyed girls report that the staff, programs, and treatment in county juvenile facilities did not help them deal with past trauma; an additional 4% said that county facilities actually did more harm than good in dealing with past trauma.”
The Price They Pay: Protecting the Mother-Child Relationship Through the Use of Prison Nurseries and Residential Parenting Programs Anne E. Jbara, October, 2012“Based on the emotional and cognitive benefits for both mothers and babies, the prison nursery program is a worthwhile addition to the prison system in the United States.”
Improving the Juvenile Justice System for Girls Lessons from the States Georgetown Center on Poverty, Inequality, and Public Policy, October, 2012“The set of challenges that girls often face as they enter the juvenile justice system include trauma, violence, neglect, mental and physical problems, family conflict, pregnancy, residential and academic instability, and school failure.”
Women's pathways to jail: The roles & intersections of serious mental illness & trauma Bureau of Justice Assistance, September, 2012“[C]hildhood victimization and adult trauma increased the risk of poor mental health, and poor mental health predicted a greater offending history.”
Representing Girls in the Juvenile Justice SystemNorth Carolina Office of the Juvenile Defender, August, 2012“In an effort to provide information to defense counsel, this document provides a compilation of research regarding girls in the juvenile justice system and suggests best practices and strategies for defense counsel representing girls.”
World Female Imprisonment List 2nd Edition Women and girls in penal institutions, including pre-trial detainees/remand prisoners International Centre for Prison Studies, August, 2012“More than 625,000 women and girls are held in penal institutions throughout the world,”
"She Doesn't Deserve to be Treated Like This": Prisons as Sites of Reproductive Injustice Rachel Roth, Center for Women Policy Studies, July, 2012“[T]he well-established nature of women’s rights has not stopped prison and jail personnel from trying to deny women abortion care, or at least obstruct women’s access to abortion.”
"She Doesn't Deserve to be Treated Like This": Prisons as Sites of Reproductive Injustice Rachel Roth, Center for Women Policy Studies, July, 2012“[T]he well-established nature of women’s rights has not stopped prison and jail personnel from trying to deny women abortion care, or at least obstruct women’s access to abortion.”
Half of Women on Probation or Parole Experience Mental IllnessSAMHSA, March, 2012“[A]mong women aged 18 to 49, about half of those who had been on probation (49.4%) or on parole (54.2%) in the past year experienced any mental illness in the past year, compared with 27.5 percent of women who had not been on probation or parole.”
Best Practices in the Use of Restraints with Pregnant Women and Girls Under Correctional Custody Bureau of Justice Assistance, 2012“The use of restraints on pregnant women and girls under correctional custody should be limited to absolute necessity. The use of restraints is considered absolutely necessary only when there is an imminent risk of escape or harm...”
Motivation for Treatment Among Women Offenders in Prison-Based Treatment and Longitudinal Outcomes Among Those Who Participate in Community Aftercare National Institutes of Health, September, 2011“Participants who completed the aftercare program, or who had longer treatment duration, and those who had participated in an in-prison program prior to parole had reduced risk of recidivism.”
Creating the Roadmap for Reduction Reducing the Number of Women in Prison in Alabama Justice Policy Institute, April, 2011“In the summer of 2009, Corrections and JPI staff recognized the opportunity to expedite the reclassification of currently-incarcerated women using the new classification module and the need to add capacity to identify women who can be safely released.”
When More is Less How a Larger Women's Jail in Baltimore will Reduce Public Safety and Diminish Resources for Positive Social Investments Justice Policy Institute, January, 2011“Given that research indicates that increased incarceration does not equal less crime--it actually is the opposite -- the negative public safety, economic and community impacts of the planned expansion are not justifiable.”
The Intersectionality of Race, Gender, and Reentry Challenges for African-American Women American Constitution Society for Law and Policy, November, 2010“African-American women offenders face collateral attacks on their motherhood, on their ability to secure housing and employment, and on their ability to reintegrate. Reentry programs must have a race and gender focus that confronts intersectionality.”
Mothers Behind Bars: A state-by-state report card and analysis of federal policies on conditions of confinement for pregnant/parenting women The Rebecca Project for Human Rights and The National Women's Law Center, October, 2010“Pregnant women, incarcerated women and their children are subject to federal and state correctional policies that fail to recognize their distinct needs or honor their families.”
Mothers Behind Bars State-by-state report card and analysis of federal policies on conditions of confinement for pregnant & parenting women The Rebecca Project for Human Rights, The National Women's Law Center, October, 2010“38 states received failing grades for their failure to institute adequate policies, or any policies at all, requiring that incarcerated pregnant women receive adequate prenatal care, despite the fact that many women in prison have higher-risk pregnancies.”
Obstructing Justice: Prisons as Barriers to Medical Care for Pregnant Women Rachel Roth, UCLA Women's Law Journal, August, 2010“Jail and prison staff appear unprepared for pregnancy-related emergencies, and their dismissive attitudes toward pregnant women who say they need medical attention only increase the likelihood of delaying and denying care.”
Women in Law Enforcement 1987-2008Bureau of Justice Statistics, June, 2010“Overall, the precent of sworn federal law enforcement officers who were women increased slightly from 1998 to 2008.”
A Study of Women Prisoners' Use of Co-Payments for Health CareAnastasia A. Fisher & Diane C. Hatton, May, 2010“Co-payments contributed to delays in treatment, avoidance of health care professionals, unnecessary suffering, and poor health outcomes [among incarcerated women].”
Study of Incarcerated Women and Their ChildrenOklahoma Commission on Children and Youth, January, 2010“Over three‐fourths of the women had only a high school education or less. Two‐thirds had been physically and/or sexually abused as a child.”
Female Victims of ViolenceBureau of Justice Statistics, September, 2009“The rate of intimate partner violence against females declined 53% between 1993 and 2008, from 9.4 victimizations per 1,000 females age 12 or older to 4.3 per 1,000. Against males, the rate declined 54%.”
Mothers, Infants and Imprisonment A National Look at Prison Nurseries and Community-Based Alternatives Women's Prison Association, May, 2009“Though every state has seen a dramatic rise in its women's prison population over the past three decades, only nine states have prison nursery programs in operation or under development.”
Gender-Responsive Programs Addressing the Needs of Female Offenders American Correctional Association (Mary L. Livers and Tomi Hiers), August, 2007“Surveys taken of staff [...] indicated that [gender-responsive] training taught them awareness of the pathways of women into prison, how to effectively communicate with female offenders, sensitivity training, and the importance of family contacts and ties”
The Nation's Most Punitive States for WomenNational Council on Crime and Delinquency, July, 2007“This Fact Sheet reports the latest state and national data available for women and girls involved in local and state corrections systems across the nation.”
Women in the Criminal Justice System Briefing Sheets Sentencing Project, May, 2007“In state prisons in 1998, 23.6% of women were identified as mentally ill, compared to 15.8% of men, while in federal prisons the proportions were 12.5% of women and 7% of men.”
Reducing the Incarceration of Women: Community-Based Alternatives National Council on Crime and Delinquency, December, 2006“Typically nonviolent low-level offenders, women have been hit particularly hard by California's sentencing and correctional policies and practices.”
Custody and Control Conditions of Confinement in New York's Juvenile Prisons for Girls Human Rights Watch, September, 2006“[G]irls experience abusive physical restraints and other forms of abuse and neglect, and are denied the mental health, educational, and other rehabilitative services they need.”
When Men Murder Women: An Analysis of 2004 Homicide Data The Violence Policy Center, September, 2006“[O]ffers both national and state-by-state statistics from FBI Supplementary Homicide Report data including charts listing the number and rate of female homicides by state and a chart ranking each state by rate.”
World Female Imprisonment List (Women and girls in penal institutions, including pre-trial detainees/remand prisoners) International Centre for Prison Studies, King's College, September, 2006“More than half a million women and girls are held in penal institutions throughout the world... [a]bout a third of these are in the United States of America.”
A Rallying Cry for Change: Charting a New Direction in the State of Florida's Response to Girls in the Juvenile Justice System National Council on Crime and Delinquency, July, 2006“Depression, trauma, anger, self-destructive behavior, or other mental health/clinical diagnoses were a factor for 79% of girls in residential and 84% of girls in non-residential programs.”
The Punitiveness Report-Hard Hit: The Growth in the Imprisonment of Women, 1977-2004 Women's Prison Association - Institute on Women & Criminal Justice, May, 2006
The Spiral of Risk: Health Care Provision to Incarcerated Women National Council on Crime and Delinquency, March, 2006“Female offenders commonly face a wide range of serious health problems.... Their health problems typically predate their involvement in the justice system, are often exacerbated while they are imprisoned, and continue to deteriorate after release.”
Caught in the Net: The Impact of Drug Policies on Women and Families ACLU, Break the Chains and Brennan Center, March, 2005
Double Jeopardy: A Report on Training and Educational Programs for New Hampshire's Female Offenders New Hampshire Commission on the Status of Women, December, 2004
Breaking the Barriers for Women on ParoleLittle Hoover Commission, December, 2004“At the time of their arrest, half of these women were taking care of their children; two-thirds of those women were single parents.”(This report looks at incarceration patterns for women in California and proposes solutions for the problems identified.)
Hard Data on Hard Times An Empirical Analysis of Maternal Incarceration, Foster Care and Visitation Vera Institute of Justice, August, 2004
Custodial Sexual Misconduct Laws: A State-by-State Legislative Review Stop Prisoner Rape (now known as Just Detention International), July, 2004(Check justdetention.org for more recent information)
Beyond Locked Doors: Abuse of Refugee Women at the Krome Detention Facility Women's Commission for Refugee Women & Children, October, 2002
Treatment of Incarcerated Women With Substance Abuse and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS), July, 2002
The War on Drugs and the War on Abortion: Some Initial Thoughts on the Connections, Intersections, and the Effects Lynn Paltrow, May, 2002(By recognizing the similarity between reproductive rights and the drug war there is an opportunity for a deeper understanding of each issue and a basis for developing analysis and action that can counteract the forces of punishment and prohibition.)
Unlocking Options for Women A Survey of Women in Cook County Jail Chicago Coalition for the Homeless, April, 2002
Life Sentences: Denying Welfare Benefits to Women Convicted of Drug Offenses Sentencing Project, February, 2002
Innocents in Jail: INS Moves Refugee Women from Krome to Turner Guilford Knight CC, Miami Women's Commission for Refugee Women & Children, June, 2001(follow-up to Behind Locked Doors)
Justice by Gender: The Lack of Appropriate Prevention, Diversion and Treatment Alternatives for Girls in the Juvenile Justice System American Bar Association, May, 2001
Intimate Partner ViolenceBureau of Justice Statistics, May, 2000“Intimate partner violence against women declined from 1993 through 1998 -- One-third of all murdered females were killed by partner”
Abuse of Women in Custody: Sexual Misconduct and Shackling of Pregnant Women Amnesty International, 2000(includes a detailed state by state survey)
Some Days Are Harder Than Hard: Welfare Reform and Women With Drug Convictions in Pennsylvania Center for Law and Social Policy, December, 1999
Women OffendersBureau of Justice Statistics, December, 1999“About 2.1 million violent female offenders annually. Most commit simple assaults against other females”
Gender and Justice: Women, Drugs, and Sentencing Policy Sentencing Project, October, 1999
Women in Prison: Sexual Misconduct by Correctional Staff General Accounting Office, June, 1999
Not Part of My Sentence Violations of the Human Rights of Women in Custody Amnesty International, March, 1999
Double Jeopardy: An Assessment of the Felony Drug Provision of the Welfare Reform Act Justice Policy Institute, October, 1998
Nowhere to Hide: Retaliation Against Women in Michigan State Prisons Human Rights Watch, September, 1998
Forgotten Prisoners: A Follow-Up Report on Refugee Women Incarcerated in York County, Pennsylvania Women's Commission for Refugee Women & Children, July, 1998
Liberty Denied: Women Seeking Asylum Imprisoned in the United States Women's Commission for Refugee Women & Children, April, 1997
All Too Familiar: Sexual Abuse of Women in U.S. State Prisons Human Rights Watch, December, 1996(summary and recommendations only)
Domestic and Sexual Violence Data Collection: A Report to Congress under the Violence Against Women Act , Bureau of Justice Statistics, July, 1996“how States and the Federal government collect data on the incidence of sexual and domestic violence offenses.”
Violence Against Women: Estimates from the Redesigned National Crime Victimization Survey Bureau of Justice Statistics, August, 1995
